Mother’s Day is a celebration of the positive aspects of motherhood. But, for working mothers, being a mom often comes with a downside that researchers call the “motherhood penalty.” While fathers often see their salaries rise after having children, mothers’ earnings and career trajectories tend to take a hit once children arrive. Several recent studies, all published within the past year, offer new insights into the mental load mothers take on, the motherhood penalty, unexpected advantages of work-from-home options and even a potential motherhood advantage at work.

How Timing Shapes The Motherhood Penalty

While decisions about motherhood are deeply personal and influenced by many factors beyond career or income, research continues to highlight the economic penalties of motherhood. A new study published in the Journal of Applied Psychology suggests the timing may be an important factor in how motherhood impacts pay.

The researchers examined national survey data following nearly 6,000 women from adolescence through midlife. Women who delayed motherhood until at least their thirties had lifetime earnings between $495,000 and $556,000 more than women who became mothers earlier. Even after controlling for age, race, marital status, education and working hours, early motherhood was associated with the lowest long-term earnings.

Previous researchers have found that even slight delays in childbearing can have considerable economic consequences, and that delaying motherhood by a single year can increase lifetime earnings by about 9%.

“Motherhood fundamentally changes the trajectory of women’s careers, especially when it happens early,” one of the authors, Rice University psychology professor Eden King explained in a press release about the study. The early years of a career are when people build skills, gain experience and benefit from some of the fastest wage growth. Interruptions during this period can limit these opportunities. And, because wages tend to compound over time, even small disruptions at the start of a career can have lasting effects.

The researchers became inspired to pursue this research when lawmakers suggested that women’s access to abortion had no impact on their economic outcomes, and the study results suggest several potential policy implications. “Policies ensuring access to contraception and safe abortion, paid parental leave, and state-funded childcare may be important for women’s long-term economic stability,” the authors write.

As Earnings Rise, Mom’s Physical Workload Declines, But Mental Load Remains

Other research shows that as mothers’ earnings increase, the amount of physical housework they do decreases. However, the mental load, or the invisible work that keeps family life functioning, doesn’t let up.

In the study, published in Social Psychology Quarterly , researchers asked more than 2,000 parents which partner in their relationship was responsible for everyday tasks, from scheduling dentist visits to remembering when kids need a haircut. They also asked who handled physical chores like cleaning, doing laundry and childcare.

They found that mothers who work more and earn more do less physical housework, but still do the bulk of the behind-the-scenes mental labor. The reason, the authors suggest, is what they call “cognitive stickiness.” Once these invisible responsibilities are informally assigned to the mom, they tend to stay with her over time.

The findings also suggest how difficult it is to outsource the mental load. While it’s easy to find someone to clean your house, it’s more difficult to train someone to manage the household tasks.

While most research focuses on the negative career outcomes associated with motherhood, a new study, published in the Journal of Applied Psychology, found evidence of a potential “motherhood advantage” at work.

The researchers surveyed over 600 employees and found that parents, especially mothers, are more likely to see their work as meaningful in relation to their family, viewing it as a way to model values like responsibility, diligence and integrity for their children. Those who held this mindset also exhibited higher levels of effort at work and more positive behaviors, like helping colleagues and going beyond formal job requirements. Some of the positive job outcomes were reported by supervisors rather than self-reported, suggesting the effect is pronounced enough to be visible to others. And the effects were found in studies in both the U.S. and China, indicating the pattern may hold across cultures.

How Work-From-Home Options May Be Changing Family Planning And Career Choice

Work-from-home (WFH) options are often seen as especially helpful for mothers, who tend to shoulder more childcare and household responsibilities. But new research suggests the benefits of WFH options extend beyond flexibility.

Research from the Centre for Economic Policy Research indicates a potential link between remote work and higher fertility rates. Drawing on survey data from 38 countries, the study found that adults who work from home at least once a week report higher levels of both intended and actual fertility. When both partners have this flexibility, lifetime fertility increases by an estimated 14% (0.32 additional children per woman) across the 38 countries studied, and by 18% (0.45 additional children per woman) in the U.S. data.

It’s important to note that the findings merely show a relationship between working from home and higher fertility, so they don’t necessarily indicate that working from home causes higher fertility. While it’s possible that the extra flexibility encourages couples to have children, another plausible explanation is that those planning a family are more likely to seek out workplaces with WFH options.

In a second study, a National Bureau of Economic Research working paper, the researchers examined how increases in WFH options in certain fields impacted the number of mothers in those fields.

Advances in technology have made remote work easier for some college majors than for others, allowing some careers to be performed at least partially from home. In fields like marketing and finance, employees increasingly had the option to work from home at least occasionally or during evenings, rather than needing to be in the office full-time. Other fields, like pharmacy and education, have less flexibility.

The researchers found that more mothers began moving into the fields with more WFH options. Even relatively small increases in the ability to work from home were associated with higher employment rates among mothers. The impact was especially strong in careers known for long, inflexible hours.

Following women over time, they also found another benefit for mothers. Women with access to remote work before childbirth are significantly less likely to leave the workforce after having children.

The Factors That Help Mothers Succeed At Work

Finally, a study published in Community, Work & Family reinforces what many working mothers already know—success at work depends on their support systems. The researchers surveyed more than 7,300 women working in UK academia to examine the impacts of motherhood on careers. They found that more generous maternity leave and access to reliable, extended childcare are linked to higher earnings and stronger career progression. Day-to-day support mattered too. Mothers reported higher job satisfaction when their managers were understanding. And at home, having a supportive partner also made a difference in their ability to succeed professionally.